论宪法修改权及宪法修改程序的完善

王志彬


一　　问题的提出/前言
自1954年《中华人民共和国宪法》诞生以来，我国宪法经历了多次修改，包括1975年、1978年、1982年三次全面修改，1979年、1980年对1978年宪法的部分修改，1988年、1993年、1999年、2004年对1982年宪法的部分修改，每一次宪法修改，特别是对1982年宪法的四次修改都引起了法学界的广泛关注，通过对修宪内容和意义的充分论述推动了相关理论的发展，取得了丰硕的成果。相比而言，我国学者对宪法修改权和修改程序研究不够。我国修宪实践如此丰富，为何会出现宪法修改权和修改程序缺乏研究的现象呢?我认为主要有以下三方面的原因：
（一）在宪法理论界，宪法程序问题没有得到应有的重视。宪法程序在我国传统的宪法学理论中并没有作为一个必要的宪法范畴存在。１学者们总是把宪法程序附属在相关制度基本理论之后作简单介绍，很少有学者将宪法制定、修改、解释、国家权力运作、公民宪法权利保护、宪法监督等程序加以系统化的研究，总结其价值和作用；而且，在我国现行宪法中作为程序法核心的诉讼程序缺失，更无宪事诉讼可言，也制约了宪法程序理论的研究。在此背景下，作为宪法程序一部分的修宪程序和与之相关的修宪权问题缺乏研究也是很正常的现象。
（二）宪法修改工具意识排斥对宪法修改权及修改程序的研究。宪法学者关注的焦点大都放在宪法学实体方面内容之上，并积极呼吁相应的研究成果写入宪法，把宪法修改作为工具。加强宪法修改权和修改程序的研究，完善宪法修改理论，会增加修宪难度，“工具”变得复杂而难以随意操作当然是宪法修改工具主义者所不愿接受的，因而自然会产生抵制宪法修改权和修改程序研究的心理。
（三）对宪法修改权和修改程序所体现的价值没有清晰地认识。从当代中国民主建设的方面看，有一种重民主的实质和内容，而轻视民主的形式的倾向。２这种倾向反映在宪法价值研究的层面上，表现为对宪法实体内容中体现的保护人权、限制权力等实体正义价值的积极研究，而对宪法程序内容中体现的民主、效率等程序正义价值相对忽视。虽然有学者呼吁在思想上树立程序正义理念，但对于此理念在宪法程序中具体如何体现却鲜有论述，对宪法修改权和修改程序所体现的价值更加难以形成清晰认识，必然会造成研究动力不足。
因此，很有必要对宪法修改权和修改程序进行研究，发现其中体现的宪法价值，并丰富宪法修改权和修改程序理论，提出完善相应宪法规定的建议，促进其宪法价值的实现。
二　　宪法修改的概念、原因和限制
宪法修改的概念、原因和限制是研究宪法修改权和宪法修改程序必须首先明确的基础性问题。
（一） 宪法修改的概念
宪法修改的概念有狭义与广义两个层次，狭义的宪法修改是指，宪法正式施行以后，发现部分或全部规定与实际需要不相适应，由有权修改的机关依据特定的程序，对宪法的部分条文所作的重订，修订或者作部分的增删等活动。而广义的宪法修改除此种直接变动文本的方式外，还包括对宪法的“无形修改”，也就是通过宪法解释、宪法惯例等方式，在不改变宪法文字的情况下，使宪法的涵义发生实际上的变化，这种情况也称为“宪法的变迁”。３本文所讨论的宪法修改是就其狭义而言的，也是以狭义宪法修改定义下的宪法修改权和宪法修改程序为研究内容的。
（二） 宪法修改的原因
宪法修改的原因是宪法修改权和修改程序产生的根本，宪法学者对宪法修改原因的认识比较一致，一般认为有客观和主观两方面的原因：
第一，客观原因，主要是指社会现实的发展变化。首先，社会生活中经济因素的变化可能导致宪法的修改。其次，政治因素的相互作用，也会直接影响宪法的稳定性导致宪法的修改。这里所指的政治因素主要包括两个方面：一是社会政治制度的变化，二是阶级力量的对比关系的变化。
第二，主观原因，主要是指由于受到人们认识能力的限制，制宪者在设计宪法时难免有考虑不周、预见不到之处。人们认识能力的提高和宪法规范缺陷的显现会引起相应的宪法修改。可以从以下两个方面说明：一是宪法理论的发展完善。二是宪法制定技术的原因使宪法制度设计存在瑕疵，宪法规范表述不准确，有的可以通过宪法解释加以明确，有的则必须通过宪法修改加以完善。
（三） 宪法修改的限制
宪法修改是否存在一定的限制在理论上有两种不同的观点即否定论４和肯定论５。相比而言，肯定论更为可取，各国的宪法规定也证明确实有宪法修改限制的存在，这些限制主要包括：
一是宪法修改内容的限制。这是实行立宪政体国家的一种通行做法。各国对宪法修改内容的限制通常有以下几种情况：第一，宪法的基本原则在修改上的限制；第二，共和政体在修改上的限制；第三，公民基本权利条款在修改上的限制；第四，修改宪法不得有损于国家主权和领土完整。6例如， 1949年制定的联邦德国基本法第79条第3款规定：对本基本法的修正不得影响联邦划分为州，以及各州按原则参与立法的原则，或第1条和第20条所规定的原则。7
二是宪法修改时间的限制。有些国家的宪法规定非经一定时间不得修改宪法。例如，美国联邦宪法就明确规定该宪法中几种特殊条款，非迟至1808年以后不得修改。也有些国家的宪法规定每隔若干年修改一次，其时间间隔一般较长。例如，葡萄牙1991年宪法第82条规定，宪法每隔10年修改一次。
三是宪法修改的其他限制。有些国家的宪法规定在特定时期，即国家面临危机的情况下，不得修改宪法。例如，法国宪法规定，在法国领土一部或全部被外国军队占领时，修宪程序不得着手或进行。此外，还有些国家的宪法规定修改方式8上的限制，主要是指禁止全面修改，但也不是绝对的，通常与时间限制相结合。例如，巴拉圭1940年宪法第94条规定宪法公布后10年内不得全面修改。
宪法要适应社会现实生活的显著变化，体现人类认识能力的进步，因而宪法修改成为必然，宪法修改应当尊重宪法的根本精神和原则，维护宪法体系的稳定性，宪法修改限制的存在是十分必要的。正是宪法修改限制的存在明确了宪法修改权作用的空间，宪法修改程序适用的范围（在广义上讲，宪法修改程序也是对宪法修改的一种限制）。

三　　宪法修改权和宪法修改程序的价值
如前所述，对修宪权和修宪程序的价值不清晰是我国学者对修宪权和修宪程序研究缺乏的一个主要原因，而修宪权的分配、修宪程序的设计都应当以修宪权和修宪程序的价值为指导，所以明确修宪权和修宪程序的价值能够使人们树立程序正义观念，深化修宪权和修宪程序的研究，从而丰富宪法学理论，指导宪法修改实践，具有重大意义。
（一） 宪法修改权和宪法修改程序的价值的定义
所谓法的价值，是指在主体人与客体法的关系中，作为客体的法对主体人的需要的产生效应的属性，其外延包括三个层次：一是指法律本身的价值，二是指法律促进哪些价值，三是指发生价值冲突是法律依据什么标准做出评价。9根据以上法的价值的定义，可以这样表述修宪权和修宪程序的价值的定义，即在宪法修改过程中，修宪权和修宪程序对修宪权主体的需要产生效应的属性，其外延包括三个层次：一是修宪权和修宪程序本身具有的民主、效率的程序正义价值，二是指修宪权和修宪程序促进宪法修改结果体现保护人权、限制权力的实体正义价值，三是指以上两种不同层次的价值或同一层次不同内容的价值之间产生冲突时的评价标准。10明确修宪权和修宪程序的价值的定义后，对其包括的三个层次的外延阐述如下：
（二） 民主、效率价值
这是修宪权和修宪程序本身所具有的程序正义价值11。不可否认，程序正义价值相对于实体正义价值而言具有工具或手段意义，但是从另一个角度来看，实体正义价值是通过程序正义价值来实现的，因而会受到程序正义价值的影响；而且程序较实体更容易把握，只要正义的程序要件得到满足并遵守，就意味着达到了程序正义价值的基本要求，而实体正义价值则具有不确定性，由于评价主体所处地位、知识水平、利益需求、与宪法修改的相关程度等方面的差异，对于同一宪法修改内容必然会有不同的甚至截然相反的评价。由此可见，修宪权和修宪程序的程序正义价值具有一定的独立性，而且强调这一价值是十分必要的。
1 民主
首先，民主是与专制相对立的，为了防止一部分人利用宪法修改实现少数人对多数人利益的专横的侵害或剥夺，必须依靠民主参与、民主决策；其次，民主促进科学决策的形成，与修宪内容有关的不同主体都有平等的发表意见的机会，会促进对问题全面深刻的认识，更好的协调各方利益。民主作为修宪权和修宪程序的价值的内容应当由以下原则构成：
（1）平等参与原则。
任何程序都是通过当事人的相互行为和关系而实现的，没有主体参与的程序是不存在的，而参与程序的主体应该是平等的。12在修宪过程中，除了全民公决之外，公众主要是通过选举代表委托行使修宪权，但公众并不因此而丧失参与修宪的权利，应该给公众了解、讨论修宪内容并发表意见的参与机会，而且当修宪内容对某些特殊利益主体有重要影响时则必须给他们陈述意见的机会，从而使他们能够对修宪结果发挥有效的影响。在参与修宪的过程中，公众或修宪权主体成员间是平等的，具体是指程序的同一阶段同类主体之间地位、参与机会和方式平等，因某些主体参与能力较差或与修宪内容有特别密切联系而得到较多的发言机会，是追求参与效果平等所作的必要纠正。
（2）过程公开原则。
过程公开是民主社会的基本特征，一切专制统治都是以其政务的神秘性出现的，即使有成文法的公布，还是有大量实际运行的潜规则13起着重要作用，权力的运作模式是公众难以知悉的，更谈不上控制或制约，修宪权和修宪程序的法定内容和实际运行只有在向公众公开的情况下，其程序正当性才能被认可。过程公开包括以下内容：第一，修宪权和修宪程序的法定内容公开；第二，宪法修改内容所涉及的各种信息公开；第三，修宪程序每一阶段的进展情况公开，允许采访、报道甚至现场直播；第四，过程公开应当以普通公众能够比较方便的获取已公开的信息为标准。过程公开原则具有重要意义，它是平等参与原则的必要条件，没有公众对权力运行情况的了解，所谓公民最大限度的参与国家事务就是一句空话；14它提供了对修宪权主体行使权力进行监督的可能，同时又具有宣传、教育作用，是公众对宪法修改结果普遍认同的依据。
（3）决策自治原则。
决策自治原则是私法中的意思自治原则在公法中的体现，意思自治的基本含义是主体地位平等、意志自由、行为自主、决策自定、责任自负。15决策自治原则在修宪过程中是指，修宪的结果应当合乎逻辑的从修宪程序中产生，修宪程序对修宪结果的形成具有决定作用。决策自治原则反对修宪结果先于修宪程序的完成而确定，程序与结果的割裂极可能出现悖逆公正要求的肆意妄为，没有经过辩论、协商或这些过程不起实际作用是对程序正义的背叛，也无法证明结果的正当性；决策自治原则也反对程序外不正当因素对修宪权主体自由意志的决定性影响，如果修宪权主体被收买或受到威胁、欺骗，意志不能自由，那么很难得出具有正当性的修宪结果。决策自治原则是保证修宪程序产生实际效果的决定性原则。
（4）特别多数原则。
在民主政治下，议事项则几乎毫无例外的规定需要参与者的多大比例的同意才能决定要处理的问题，也就是多数决原则，特别多数原则是多数决原则的一种形式。因为全体成员协商一致的完美民主难以达到，所以要实现决策自治原则在宪法修改过程中必须引入特别多数原则，这无疑会提高宪法修改的效率，但更为主要的是对于实现民主的考虑。特别多数原则比普通多数原则16要求有更多的赞成票数，3/5、2/3或3/4其保护作用更大。一方面，受宪法修改不利影响的少数派只要能够集中2/5甚至更少的票数就可以阻止宪法修改内容的通过，从而保护自己的利益；另一方面，受宪法修改有利影响的多数派只有集中3/5甚至更多的票数才能推动宪法修改内容的通过，使决策过程更为谨慎，更趋于全体一致，所形成的结果也更易于得到公众的认可。
（5）言论免责原则。
当代各民主国家的宪法大都规定了民意代表的言论免责权，该特权是指议员在议会内所作的发言，对院外不负责。17 言论免责原则目的是为对立意见提供辩论的场所，使代表们能够无所顾忌的发表自己的意见和主张，而无因此遭受打击迫害之虞，最终把问题谈透形成彼此可以接受的解决方案。宪法修改影响重大，其公众关注程度非一般立法、法律修改所能及，根据平等参与原则，公众可以了解、讨论宪法修改内容并发表意见，如果没有言论免责原则的支持，所谓平等参与原则是难以实现的，所以应当扩大言论免责原则的适用范围，使参与宪法修改过程的普通公众也享有言论免责的权利。
2 效率
英国古谚云：“迟来的正义为非正义。”程序的不适当延长或过度消耗使人们难以从心理上接受立法结果的正当性，因而效率成为人们公认的一般立法程序的价值追求之一。有学者认为，在修改宪法时，速度与效率均非主要考虑因素，甚至不作考虑，而其保护作用与民主程度则是人们关注的焦点。18这种观点很明确地指出了民主作为修宪权和修宪程序的程序正义价值的内容相对于效率的优位性，但是对效率不作主要考虑，甚至不作考虑是不合理的。第一，宪法修改主要是宪法与社会生活产生难以通过宪法解释予以解决的重大矛盾所导致的，如果不能及时协调解决，矛盾的发展将会引起社会变革的发生，其结果是制定新宪法而废除不合实际的旧宪法，但是这个过程的副作用是社会公众所不愿意承受的；第二，过分的追求民主价值必然会加大宪法修改所需的社会成本，这种“充分”民主的程序即使能够特别便利的产生完全符合实体正义的结果，也会因超出社会公众的承受能力而遭到抵制，甚至弃之不用。因此，在分配修宪权，设计修宪程序时也应当关注效率价值，防止程序的不适当延长或过度耗费，使程序既具有正当性又具有合理性。
效率作为修宪权和修宪程序价值的内容应当由以下原则构成：
（1）法定时限原则。
合理的时限规定不会有损于民主价值的实现，但没有时限规定很容易导致程序的不适当延长，所以很有必要对宪法修改过程做出合理的时限规定，以提高宪法修改的效率。美国联邦最高法院在审理Dillion v.Gloss案时也表示支持时限存在，而且认为“即使国会没有规定明确的时限，已经提出的宪法修正案也必须在提出后的合理时间内得到批准”。19具体而言，法定时限原则应当包括：第一，宪法修改过程各个阶段的最长时限法定，例如，宪法修改案的提出、公告、审议等阶段的最长时限应当由宪法作出明确规定；第二，宪法修改过程中止原因、决定机关法定，例如，宪法中可规定战争、重大自然灾害或疫情出现时修宪权主体可申请中止相应阶段时限，由国家权力机关决定是否中止、中止情况解除继续时效计算等；第三，宪法修改期限延长决定机关、延长期间法定，即在宪法修改过程中出现焦点疑难问题无法形成多数意见时，由法定机关做出延长法定期限的决定，经法定次数的延长仍不能形成结论则该问题不作为宪法修改内容。
（2）合理消耗原则。
世界贸易组织法律文件


PROTOCOL ON THE ACCESSION OF
THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA


Preamble

The World Trade Organization ("WTO"), pursuant to the approval of the Ministerial Conference of the WTO accorded under Article XII of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization ("WTO Agreement"), and the People's Republic of China ("China"),

Recalling that China was an original contracting party to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947,

Taking note that China is a signatory to the Final Act Embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations,

Taking note of the Report of the Working Party on the Accession of China in document WT/ACC/CHN/49 ("Working Party Report"),

Having regard to the results of the negotiations concerning China's membership in the WTO,

Agree as follows:

Part I - General Provisions

1. General

1. Upon accession, China accedes to the WTO Agreement pursuant to Article XII of that Agreement and thereby becomes a Member of the WTO.

2. The WTO Agreement to which China accedes shall be the WTO Agreement as rectified, amended or otherwise modified by such legal instruments as may have entered into force before the date of accession. This Protocol, which shall include the commitments referred to in paragraph 342 of the Working Party Report, shall be an integral part of the WTO Agreement.

3. Except as otherwise provided for in this Protocol, those obligations in the Multilateral Trade Agreements annexed to the WTO Agreement that are to be implemented over a period of time starting with entry into force of that Agreement shall be implemented by China as if it had accepted that Agreement on the date of its entry into force.

4. China may maintain a measure inconsistent with paragraph 1of Article II of the General Agreement on Trade in Services ("GATS") provided that such a measure is recorded in the List of Article II Exemptions annexed to this Protocol and meets the conditions of the Annex to the GATS on Article II Exemptions.

2. Administration of the Trade Regime

(A) Uniform Administration

1. The provisions of the WTO Agreement and this Protocol shall apply to the entire customs territory of China, including border trade regions and minority autonomous areas, Special Economic Zones, open coastal cities, economic and technical development zones and other areas where special regimes for tariffs, taxes and regulations are established (collectively referred to as "special economic areas").

2. China shall apply and administer in a uniform, impartial and reasonable manner all its laws, regulations and other measures of the central government as well as local regulations, rules and other measures issued or applied at the sub-national level (collectively referred to as "laws, regulations and other measures") pertaining to or affecting trade in goods, services, trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights ("TRIPS") or the control of foreign exchange.

3. China's local regulations, rules and other measures of local governments at the sub-national level shall conform to the obligations undertaken in the WTO Agreement and this Protocol.

4. China shall establish a mechanism under which individuals and enterprises can bring to the attention of the national authorities cases of non-uniform application of the trade regime.

(B) Special Economic Areas

1. China shall notify to the WTO all the relevant laws, regulations and other measures relating to its special economic areas, listing these areas by name and indicating the geographic boundaries that define them. China shall notify the WTO promptly, but in any case within 60 days, of any additions or modifications to its special economic areas, including notification of the laws, regulations and other measures relating thereto.

2. China shall apply to imported products, including physically incorporated components, introduced into the other parts of China's customs territory from the special economic areas, all taxes, charges and measures affecting imports, including import restrictions and customs and tariff charges, that are normally applied to imports into the other parts of China's customs territory.

3. Except as otherwise provided for in this Protocol, in providing preferential arrangements for enterprises within such special economic areas, WTO provisions on non-discrimination and national treatment shall be fully observed.

(C) Transparency

1. China undertakes that only those laws, regulations and other measures pertaining to or affecting trade in goods, services, TRIPS or the control of foreign exchange that are published and readily available to other WTO Members, individuals and enterprises, shall be enforced. In addition, China shall make available to WTO Members, upon request, all laws, regulations and other measures pertaining to or affecting trade in goods, services, TRIPS or the control of foreign exchange before such measures are implemented or enforced. In emergency situations, laws, regulations and other measures shall be made available at the latest when they are implemented or enforced.

2. China shall establish or designate an official journal dedicated to the publication of all laws, regulations and other measures pertaining to or affecting trade in goods, services, TRIPS or the control of foreign exchange and, after publication of its laws, regulations or other measures in such journal, shall provide a reasonable period for comment to the appropriate authorities before such measures are implemented, except for those laws, regulations and other measures involving national security, specific measures setting foreign exchange rates or monetary policy and other measures the publication of which would impede law enforcement. China shall publish this journal on a regular basis and make copies of all issues of this journal readily available to individuals and enterprises.

3. China shall establish or designate an enquiry point where, upon request of any individual, enterprise or WTO Member all information relating to the measures required to be published under paragraph 2(C)1 of this Protocol may be obtained. Replies to requests for information shall generally be provided within 30 days after receipt of a request. In exceptional cases, replies may be provided within 45 days after receipt of a request. Notice of the delay and the reasons therefor shall be provided in writing to the interested party. Replies to WTO Members shall be complete and shall represent the authoritative view of the Chinese government. Accurate and reliable information shall be provided to individuals and enterprises.

(D) Judicial Review

1. China shall establish, or designate, and maintain tribunals, contact points and procedures for the prompt review of all administrative actions relating to the implementation of laws, regulations, judicial decisions and administrative rulings of general application referred to in Article X:1 of the GATT 1994, Article VI of the GATS and the relevant provisions of the TRIPS Agreement. Such tribunals shall be impartial and independent of the agency entrusted with administrative enforcement and shall not have any substantial interest in the outcome of the matter.

2. Review procedures shall include the opportunity for appeal, without penalty, by individuals or enterprises affected by any administrative action subject to review. If the initial right of appeal is to an administrative body, there shall in all cases be the opportunity to choose to appeal the decision to a judicial body. Notice of the decision on appeal shall be given to the appellant and the reasons for such decision shall be provided in writing. The appellant shall also be informed of any right to further appeal.

3. Non-discrimination

Except as otherwise provided for in this Protocol, foreign individuals and enterprises and foreign-funded enterprises shall be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to other individuals and enterprises in respect of:

(a) the procurement of inputs and goods and services necessary for production and the conditions under which their goods are produced, marketed or sold, in the domestic market and for export; and

(b) the prices and availability of goods and services supplied by national and sub-national authorities and public or state enterprises, in areas including transportation, energy, basic telecommunications, other utilities and factors of production.

4. Special Trade Arrangements

Upon accession, China shall eliminate or bring into conformity with the WTO Agreement all special trade arrangements, including barter trade arrangements, with third countries and separate customs territories, which are not in conformity with the WTO Agreement.

5. Right to Trade

1. Without prejudice to China's right to regulate trade in a manner consistent with the WTO Agreement, China shall progressively liberalize the availability and scope of the right to trade, so that, within three years after accession, all enterprises in China shall have the right to trade in all goods throughout the customs territory of China, except for those goods listed in Annex 2A which continue to be subject to state trading in accordance with this Protocol. Such right to trade shall be the right to import and export goods. All such goods shall be accorded national treatment under Article III of the GATT 1994, especially paragraph 4 thereof, in respect of their internal sale, offering for sale, purchase, transportation, distribution or use, including their direct access to end-users. For those goods listed in Annex 2B, China shall phase out limitation on the grant of trading rights pursuant to the schedule in that Annex. China shall complete all necessary legislative procedures to implement these provisions during the transition period.

2. Except as otherwise provided for in this Protocol, all foreign individuals and enterprises, including those not invested or registered in China, shall be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to enterprises in China with respect to the right to trade.

6. State Trading

1. China shall ensure that import purchasing procedures of state trading enterprises are fully transparent, and in compliance with the WTO Agreement, and shall refrain from taking any measure to influence or direct state trading enterprises as to the quantity, value, or country of origin of goods purchased or sold, except in accordance with the WTO Agreement.

2. As part of China's notification under the GATT 1994 and the Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XVII of the GATT 1994, China shall also provide full information on the pricing mechanisms of its state trading enterprises for exported goods.

7. Non-Tariff Measures

1. China shall implement the schedule for phased elimination of the measures contained in Annex 3. During the periods specified in Annex 3, the protection afforded by the measures listed in that Annex shall not be increased or expanded in size, scope or duration, nor shall any new measures be applied, unless in conformity with the provisions of the WTO Agreement.

2. In implementing the provisions of Articles III and XI of the GATT 1994 and the Agreement on Agriculture, China shall eliminate and shall not introduce, re-introduce or apply non-tariff measures that cannot be justified under the provisions of the WTO Agreement. For all non-tariff measures, whether or not referred to in Annex 3, that are applied after the date of accession, consistent with the WTO Agreement or this Protocol, China shall allocate and otherwise administer such measures in strict conformity with the provisions of the WTO Agreement, including GATT 1994 and Article XIII thereof, and the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures, including notification requirements.

3. China shall, upon accession, comply with the TRIMs Agreement, without recourse to the provisions of Article 5 of the TRIMs Agreement. China shall eliminate and cease to enforce trade and foreign exchange balancing requirements, local content and export or performance requirements made effective through laws, regulations or other measures. Moreover, China will not enforce provisions of contracts imposing such requirements. Without prejudice to the relevant provisions of this Protocol, China shall ensure that the distribution of import licences, quotas, tariff-rate quotas, or any other means of approval for importation, the right of importation or investment by national and sub-national authorities, is not conditioned on: whether competing domestic suppliers of such products exist; or performance requirements of any kind, such as local content, offsets, the transfer of technology, export performance or the conduct of research and development in China.

4. Import and export prohibitions and restrictions, and licensing requirements affecting imports and exports shall only be imposed and enforced by the national authorities or by sub-national authorities with authorization from the national authorities. Such measures which are not imposed by the national authorities or by sub-national authorities with authorization from the national authorities, shall not be implemented or enforced.

8. Import and Export Licensing

1. In implementing the WTO Agreement and provisions of the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures, China shall undertake the following measures to facilitate compliance with these agreements:

(a) China shall publish on a regular basis the following in the official journal referred to in paragraph 2(C)2 of this Protocol:

- by product, the list of all organizations, including those organizations delegated such authority by the national authorities, that are responsible for authorizing or approving imports or exports, whether through grant of licence or other approval;

- procedures and criteria for obtaining such import or export licences or other approvals, and the conditions for deciding whether they should be granted;

- a list of all products, by tariff number, that are subject to tendering requirements, including information on products subject to such tendering requirements and any changes, pursuant to the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures;

- a list of all goods and technologies whose import or export are restricted or prohibited; these goods shall also be notified to the Committee on Import Licensing;

- any changes to the list of goods and technologies whose import and export are restricted or prohibited.

Copies of these submissions in one or more official languages of the WTO shall be forwarded to the WTO for circulation to WTO Members and for submission to the Committee on Import Licensing within 75 days of each publication.

(b) China shall notify the WTO of all licensing and quota requirements remaining in effect after accession, listed separately by HS tariff line and with the quantities associated with the restriction, if any, and the justification for maintaining the restriction or its scheduled date of termination.

(c) China shall submit the notification of its import licensing procedures to the Committee on Import Licensing. China shall report annually to the Committee on Import Licensing on its automatic import licensing procedures, explaining the circumstances which give rise to these requirements and justifying the need for their continuation. This report shall also provide the information listed in Article 3 of the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures.

(d) China shall issue import licences for a minimum duration of validity of six months, except where exceptional circumstances make this impossible. In such cases, China shall promptly notify the Committee on Import Licensing of the exceptional circumstances requiring the shorter period of licence validity.

2. Except as otherwise provided for in this Protocol, foreign individuals and enterprises and foreign-funded enterprises shall be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to other individuals and enterprises in respect of the distribution of import and export licences and quotas.

9. Price Controls

1. China shall, subject to paragraph 2 below, allow prices for traded goods and services in every sector to be determined by market forces, and multi-tier pricing practices for such goods and services shall be eliminated.

2. The goods and services listed in Annex 4 may be subject to price controls, consistent with the WTO Agreement, in particular Article III of the GATT 1994 and Annex 2, paragraphs 3 and 4 of the Agreement on Agriculture. Except in exceptional circumstances, and subject to notification to the WTO, price controls shall not be extended to goods or services beyond those listed in Annex 4, and China shall make best efforts to reduce and eliminate these controls.

3. China shall publish in the official journal the list of goods and services subject to state pricing and changes thereto.

10. Subsidies

1. China shall notify the WTO of any subsidy within the meaning of Article 1 of the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures ("SCM Agreement"), granted or maintained in its territory, organized by specific product, including those subsidies defined in Article 3 of the SCM Agreement. The information provided should be as specific as possible, following the requirements of the questionnaire on subsidies as noted in Article 25 of the SCM Agreement.

2. For purposes of applying Articles 1.2 and 2 of the SCM Agreement, subsidies provided to state-owned enterprises will be viewed as specific if, inter alia, state-owned enterprises are the predominant recipients of such subsidies or state-owned enterprises receive disproportionately large amounts of such subsidies.

3. China shall eliminate all subsidy programmes falling within the scope of Article 3 of the SCM Agreement upon accession.

11. Taxes and Charges Levied on Imports and Exports

1. China shall ensure that customs fees or charges applied or administered by national or sub-national authorities, shall be in conformity with the GATT 1994.

2. China shall ensure that internal taxes and charges, including value-added taxes, applied or administered by national or sub-national authorities shall be in conformity with the GATT 1994.

3. China shall eliminate all taxes and charges applied to exports unless specifically provided for in Annex 6 of this Protocol or applied in conformity with the provisions of Article VIII of the GATT 1994.

4. Foreign individuals and enterprises and foreign-funded enterprises shall, upon accession, be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to other individuals and enterprises in respect of the provision of border tax adjustments.

12. Agriculture

1. China shall implement the provisions contained in China's Schedule of Concessions and Commitments on Goods and, as specifically provided in this Protocol, those of the Agreement on Agriculture. In this context, China shall not maintain or introduce any export subsidies on agricultural products.

2. China shall, under the Transitional Review Mechanism, notify fiscal and other transfers between or among state-owned enterprises in the agricultural sector (whether national or sub-national) and other enterprises that operate as state trading enterprises in the agricultural sector.

13. Technical Barriers to Trade

1. China shall publish in the official journal all criteria, whether formal or informal, that are the basis for a technical regulation, standard or conformity assessment procedure.

2. China shall, upon accession, bring into conformity with the TBT Agreement all technical regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures.

3. China shall apply conformity assessment procedures to imported products only to determine compliance with technical regulations and standards that are consistent with the provisions of this Protocol and the WTO Agreement. Conformity assessment bodies will determine the conformity of imported products with commercial terms of contracts only if authorized by the parties to such contract. China shall ensure that such inspection of products for compliance with the commercial terms of contracts does not affect customs clearance or the granting of import licences for such products.

4. (a) Upon accession, China shall ensure that the same technical regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures are applied to both imported and domestic products. In order to ensure a smooth transition from the current system, China shall ensure that, upon accession, all certification, safety licensing, and quality licensing bodies and agencies are authorized to undertake these activities for both imported and domestic products, and that, one year after accession, all conformity assessment bodies and agencies are authorized to undertake conformity assessment for both imported and domestic products. The choice of body or agency shall be at the discretion of the applicant. For imported and domestic products, all bodies and agencies shall issue the same mark and charge the same fee. They shall also provide the same processing periods and complaint procedures. Imported products shall not be subject to more than one conformity assessment. China shall publish and make readily available to other WTO Members, individuals, and enterprises full information on the respective responsibilities of its conformity assessment bodies and agencies.

(b) No later than 18 months after accession, China shall assign the respective responsibilities of its conformity assessment bodies solely on the basis of the scope of work and type of product without any consideration of the origin of a product. The respective responsibilities that will be assigned to China's conformity assessment bodies will be notified to the TBT Committee 12 months after accession.

14. Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

China shall notify to the WTO all laws, regulations and other measures relating to its sanitary and phytosanitary measures, including product coverage and relevant international standards, guidelines and recommendations, within 30 days after accession.

15. Price Comparability in Determining Subsidies and Dumping

Article VI of the GATT 1994, the Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 ("Anti-Dumping Agreement") and the SCM Agreement shall apply in proceedings involving imports of Chinese origin into a WTO Member consistent with the following:

(a) In determining price comparability under Article VI of the GATT 1994 and the Anti-Dumping Agreement, the importing WTO Member shall use either Chinese prices or costs for the industry under investigation or a methodology that is not based on a strict comparison with domestic prices or costs in China based on the following rules:

(i) If the producers under investigation can clearly show that market economy conditions prevail in the industry producing the like product with regard to the manufacture, production and sale of that product, the importing WTO Member shall use Chinese prices or costs for the industry under investigation in determining price comparability;

(ii) The importing WTO Member may use a methodology that is not based on a strict comparison with domestic prices or costs in China if the producers under investigation cannot clearly show that market economy conditions prevail in the industry producing the like product with regard to manufacture, production and sale of that product.

(b) In proceedings under Parts II, III and V of the SCM Agreement, when addressing subsidies described in Articles 14(a), 14(b), 14(c) and 14(d), relevant provisions of the SCM Agreement shall apply; however, if there are special difficulties in that application, the importing WTO Member may then use methodologies for identifying and measuring the subsidy benefit which take into account the possibility that prevailing terms and conditions in China may not always be available as appropriate benchmarks. In applying such methodologies, where practicable, the importing WTO Member should adjust such prevailing terms and conditions before considering the use of terms and conditions prevailing outside China.

(c) The importing WTO Member shall notify methodologies used in accordance with subparagraph (a) to the Committee on Anti-Dumping Practices and shall notify methodologies used in accordance with subparagraph (b) to the Committee on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures.

(d) Once China has established, under the national law of the importing WTO Member, that it is a market economy, the provisions of subparagraph (a) shall be terminated provided that the importing Member's national law contains market economy criteria as of the date of accession. In any event, the provisions of subparagraph (a)(ii) shall expire 15 years after the date of accession. In addition, should China establish, pursuant to the national law of the importing WTO Member, that market economy conditions prevail in a particular industry or sector, the non-market economy provisions of subparagraph (a) shall no longer apply to that industry or sector.

16. Transitional Product-Specific Safeguard Mechanism

1. In cases where products of Chinese origin are being imported into the territory of any WTO Member in such increased quantities or under such conditions as to cause or threaten to cause market disruption to the domestic producers of like or directly competitive products, the WTO Member so affected may request consultations with China with a view to seeking a mutually satisfactory solution, including whether the affected WTO Member should pursue application of a measure under the Agreement on Safeguards. Any such request shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards.

2. If, in the course of these bilateral consultations, it is agreed that imports of Chinese origin are such a cause and that action is necessary, China shall take such action as to prevent or remedy the market disruption. Any such action shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards.

3. If consultations do not lead to an agreement between China and the WTO Member concerned within 60 days of the receipt of a request for consultations, the WTO Member affected shall be free, in respect of such products, to withdraw concessions or otherwise to limit imports only to the extent necessary to prevent or remedy such market disruption. Any such action shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards.

4. Market disruption shall exist whenever imports of an article, like or directly competitive with an article produced by the domestic industry, are increasing rapidly, either absolutely or relatively, so as to be a significant cause of material injury, or threat of material injury to the domestic industry. In determining if market disruption exists, the affected WTO Member shall consider objective factors, including the volume of imports, the effect of imports on prices for like or directly competitive articles, and the effect of such imports on the domestic industry producing like or directly competitive products.

5. Prior to application of a measure pursuant to paragraph 3, the WTO Member taking such action shall provide reasonable public notice to all interested parties and provide adequate opportunity for importers, exporters and other interested parties to submit their views and evidence on the appropriateness of the proposed measure and whether it would be in the public interest. The WTO Member shall provide written notice of the decision to apply a measure, including the reasons for such measure and its scope and duration.

6. A WTO Member shall apply a measure pursuant to this Section only for such period of time as may be necessary to prevent or remedy the market disruption. If a measure is taken as a result of a relative increase in the level of imports, China has the right to suspend the application of substantially equivalent concessions or obligations under the GATT 1994 to the trade of the WTO Member applying the measure, if such measure remains in effect more than two years. However, if a measure is taken as a result of an absolute increase in imports, China has a right to suspend the application of substantially equivalent concessions or obligations under the GATT 1994 to the trade of the WTO Member applying the measure, if such measure remains in effect more than three years. Any such action by China shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards.

7. In critical circumstances, where delay would cause damage which it would be difficult to repair, the WTO Member so affected may take a provisional safeguard measure pursuant to a preliminary determination that imports have caused or threatened to cause market disruption. In this case, notification of the measures taken to the Committee on Safeguards and a request for bilateral consultations shall be effected immediately thereafter. The duration of the provisional measure shall not exceed 200 days during which the pertinent requirements of paragraphs 1, 2 and 5 shall be met. The duration of any provisional measure shall be counted toward the period provided for under paragraph 6.

8. If a WTO Member considers that an action taken under paragraphs 2, 3 or 7 causes or threatens to cause significant diversions of trade into its market, it may request consultations with China and/or the WTO Member concerned. Such consultations shall be held within 30 days after the request is notified to the Committee on Safeguards. If such consultations fail to lead to an agreement between China and the WTO Member or Members concerned within 60 days after the notification, the requesting WTO Member shall be free, in respect of such product, to withdraw concessions accorded to or otherwise limit imports from China, to the extent necessary to prevent or remedy such diversions. Such action shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards.

9. Application of this Section shall be terminated 12 years after the date of accession.

17. Reservations by WTO Members

All prohibitions, quantitative restrictions and other measures maintained by WTO Members against imports from China in a manner inconsistent with the WTO Agreement are listed in Annex 7. All such prohibitions, quantitative restrictions and other measures shall be phased out or dealt with in accordance with mutually agreed terms and timetables as specified in the said Annex.

18. Transitional Review Mechanism

1. Those subsidiary bodies1 of the WTO which have a mandate covering China's commitments under the WTO Agreement or this Protocol shall, within one year after accession and in accordance with paragraph 4 below, review, as appropriate to their mandate, the implementation by China of the WTO Agreement and of the related provisions of this Protocol. China shall provide relevant information, including information specified in Annex 1A, to each subsidiary body in advance of the review. China can also raise issues relating to any reservations under Section 17 or to any other specific commitments made by other Members in this Protocol, in those subsidiary bodies which have a relevant mandate. Each subsidiary body shall report the results of such review promptly to the relevant Council established by paragraph 5 of Article IV of the WTO Agreement, if applicable, which shall in turn report promptly to the General Council.

2. The General Council shall, within one year after accession, and in accordance with paragraph 4 below, review the implementation by China of the WTO Agreement and the provisions of this Protocol. The General Council shall conduct such review in accordance with the framework set out in Annex 1B and in the light of the results of any reviews held pursuant to paragraph 1. China also can raise issues relating to any reservations under Section 17 or to any other specific commitments made by other Members in this Protocol. The General Council may make recommendations to China and to other Members in these respects.

3. Consideration of issues pursuant to this Section shall be without prejudice to the rights and obligations of any Member, including China, under the WTO Agreement or any Plurilateral Trade Agreement, and shall not preclude or be a precondition to recourse to consultation or other provisions of the WTO Agreement or this Protocol.

4. The review provided for in paragraphs 1 and 2 will take place after accession in each year for eight years. Thereafter there will be a final review in year 10 or at an earlier date decided by the General Council.

Part II - Schedules

1. The Schedules annexed to this Protocol shall become the Schedule of Concessions and Commitments annexed to the GATT 1994 and the Schedule of Specific Commitments annexed to the GATS relating to China. The staging of concessions and commitments listed in the Schedules shall be implemented as specified in the relevant parts of the relevant Schedules.

2. For the purpose of the reference in paragraph 6(a) of Article II of the GATT 1994 to the date of that Agreement, the applicable date in respect of the Schedules of Concessions and Commitments annexed to this Protocol shall be the date of accession.

Part III - Final Provisions

1. This Protocol shall be open for acceptance, by signature or otherwise, by China until 1 January 2002.

2. This Protocol shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the day of its acceptance.

3. This Protocol shall be deposited with the Director-General of the WTO. The Director-General shall promptly furnish a certified copy of this Protocol and a notification of acceptance by China thereof, pursuant to paragraph 1 of Part III of this Protocol, to each WTO Member and to China.

4. This Protocol shall be registered in accordance with the provisions of Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations.

Done at Doha this tenth day of November two thousand and one, in a single copy, in the English, French and Spanish languages, each text being authentic, except that a Schedule annexed hereto may specify that it is authentic in only one or more of these languages.

1 Council for Trade in Goods, Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Council for Trade in Services, Committees on Balance-of-Payments Restrictions, Market Access (covering also ITA), Agriculture, Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, Technical Barriers to Trade, Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, Anti-Dumping Measures, Customs Valuation, Rules of Origin, Import Licensing, Trade-Related Investment Measures, Safeguards, Trade in Financial Services.